Hydrophobic And Hydrophilic Interaction In Protein Folding Biology Essay

Hydrophobic And Hydrophilic Interaction In Protein Folding Biology Essay Review the mechanism of protein folding Module: Enzyme Technology and Biocatalysts Module leader: Prof. Steve Forsythe Proteins are the bio molecules which play pivotal role in this living world. They are responsible for expression of certain characters in different types of cells and constitute around 50% of the total cell dried mass. Proteins are the chain of amino acids which binds with polypeptide backbone and then fold in a unique 3D (native) structure by which protein expression takes place. Various forces and factors are responsible for protein folding .If right expression of the protein will not take place, it will cause disorders in human body. Many diseases like Alzheimers; Parkinson, cystic fibrosis etc (Baldwin 2007) is caused due to improper folding of proteins. For proper expression of protein, the amino acid chain should be in its unique 3D structure. Sometimes proteins require assistance in folding, molecules which help in the folding are known as chaperones. These molecules help in the folding of the certain protein molecules and also prevent the unfolding of the molecules. In this assignment, I have tried to describe the mechanism of the protein folding and effect of various factors which influence protein folding by taking into consideration the present developments in our understanding of thermodynamics and kinetics of protein. INTRODUCTION Protein folding refers to the process by which a protein assumes its characteristic structure, known as the native state. Protein folding is very complex mechanism and great development in its understanding has been achieved in last 20years due to the development and use of some sophisticated modern techniques like X Ray Crystallography, N.M.R, and Mass Spectrometry etc. In the last few decades, we have managed to find the 3D structure of various proteins and how actually protein folding takes place. In the complex process of protein folding, various factors act together to construct specific 3D structure of a protein. Protein folding is a very quick process taking milliseconds to seconds. Due to high speed of folding, it is not possible to find each and every possible conformation in fractions of time. Levinthal stated that each protein can possibly have millions of pathway by which a desired 3D pattern can be achieved. By study of intermediates we can understand the mechanism or pattern on which protein folding works. But it is impossible to find out all possible structure of protein molecules. Protein folding study uses denaturants which help to denature the protein. The logic is to use denaturing conditions viz. high pH, Temp, Pressure etc to stop folding at intermediate stages (Stop flow technique) to study these intermediates, thereby generating an overview of the whole process. Fully folded structure is also known as native structure. Protein folding studies have also been done in in-vivo and in-vitro conditions. In in- vivo protein folding, some metal ions act as cofactors. These cofactors stabilise and accelerate protein folding and finally help to achieve native stage .Macromolecules like chaperones initiate protein folding, helping the protein molecule to retain its folded confirmation and making it stable. In-vitro concentration of macromolecules is very less, around 1% of what is originally present in the cell. So inside cell, these molecules also affect protein stability and make them more stable than in vitro (Rumfeldt et al. 2008) Protein folding can be a two stages or multistage process, depending upon the type of sequence. A single point mutation can change folding from two stages to multistage and vice-versa .Some previous studies show that protein sequences of less than 80 amino acids prefer two stage folding and large protein sequences having more than 130 amino acids prefer multi stage folding. Later studies have shown that sequences rich in F and G amino acids prefer two stages folding where as sequences rich in C, H, L and R amino acids prefer multistage folding (Ma, Chen Zhang 2007) PROTEINS FOLDING Hydrophobic and hydrophilic interaction Proteins are made of amino acids and joined by polypeptide bonds leads to formation of polypeptide backbone. We have only 20 type of the amino acids .whose combinations code for such complex structure and folding .These amino acids can be divide in two groups one is hydrophilic or polar group and other is hydrophobic or nonpolar group and their interaction with the cytoplasm make them folded(Trevino, Scholtz Pace 2007) POLAR OR HYDROPHILIC AMINO ACID NON-POLAR OR HYDROPHOBIC AMINO ACID ASPARTIC ACID D ALANINE A GLUTAMIC ACID E GLYCINE G ARGNIN R VALINE V LYSINE K LEUCINE L HISTIDINE H ISOLEUCINE I ASPARAGINE N PROLINE P GLUTAMINE Q PHENYLALANINE F SERINE S METHIONINE M THREONINE T TRYPTOPHAN W TYROSENE Y CYSTEINE C In the early stages of research, problem was why protein folds to a specific structure and which part of the protein carried information for the folding and later on this was find that primary structure of the protein code for the final 3D structure. Hydrophilic and hydrophobic interactions of the amino acids adjust protein it such a way that it suffers minimum repulsion and problem from the surrounding. In folded state of protein all hydrophilic amino acid molecules come at the other side and interact with water in the cytoplasm and hydrophobic molecule come at the inner side of the molecule and dont show any reaction and attraction with water molecules and ultimately protein folding take place in such a way that suffer minimum repulsion (Baldwin 2007) All amino acids have different energetic in secondary structure. There are many chameleon sequences in protein structure which can be taken as alpha helix or beta sheets depending upon the tertiary structure of protein. These chameleon are stabilised by hydrophobic forces (Chen et al. 2008) Fig.a shows yellow colour hydrophobic molecules inner side of structure Fig.b shows folding takes place and keeps hydrophobic molecules in inner side (Chen et al. 2008) Apart from these interactions hydrogen bonding is very important in the protein folding. Hydrogen bonding takes place between hydrogen and electronegative atoms In the maintenance of the native structure hydrogen bonding present in between the polypeptide amino acid chain which helpful in the formation of the secondary, tertiary and quaternary structure of the proteins. Hydrogen bonding also interacts between polar and side chain residues with the surrounding water molecules. During the denaturing of the protein hydrogen bond between protein molecules break and native structure of protein disturbed (Djikaev, Ruckenstein 2010) Hydrophobic interactions are also responsible for the protein folding. During hydrophobic interactions amino acids which are non polar or hydrophobic they align themselves in such a way that all hydrophobic come together and all hydrophilic molecules make hydrogen bonds with water molecules, all hydrophobic amino acid come in to inner side of the protein molecules and formation of the nuclei take place which is hydrophobic these interaction further helpful in the secondary, tertiary structure and due to this protein sta bilise and help to achieve native structure because hydrophobic molecules will not interact with water and always have repulsive attitude toward water and let the protein in the folded form and finally such type of the folding take place in which molecule have hydrophobic core and all hydrophilic molecules in periphery of the folded structure(Berezovsky et al. 2001) Free energy and entropy (G, E) Gibbs free energy (G) is also defined as the amount of the energy which is free and this can also be defined as the measure of unstableness and this measured by simple equation G= H-TS G=free energy, H=enthalpy, S=entropy, T= temperature Entropy (S) is defined as degree of randomness in any system, in terms of protein folding this can be define as the measure of the possible structure in the protein molecule at that value of the entropy. Entropy is responsible for the possible out come of protein as much high would be entropy as much high number of the confirmation would form. To minimise the entropy in the protein folding various force come in play like hydrogen bonds, salt bridges, disulphide bonds etc. these bonds help to reduce the entropy and favour protein folding(Brady, Sharp 1997)BOLTZMANN worked on the entropy and give us a very useful relation between atomic theory and entropy. Boltzmann proposed an equation which shows that entropy in any unfolded protein structure is equal to the product of his constant(KB) and natural log of number of all possible states which any protein can adopt(S) S = KB * NATURAL LOG (S) KB=Boltzmann constant Protein folding prefers low value of entropy and follows that smallest path in which value of entropy is low. At different value of the entropy different number of structure could be present and finally all structure will vanished and one structure would be present at the minimum value of entropy, which is our native structure (Weikl, Dill 2003) Enthalpy (H) is also responsible for protein folding. This is also known as the measure of the total energy of the system including internal energy (U). P and V are the pressure and volume of system H= U+P*V So, we should search for such structure which have low value of enthalpy then the free energy, because which structure have low value of enthalpy that will have low value of free energy too(Brockwell, Smith Radford 2000) Gibbs free energy equation is the single solution for all protein folding problem. Gibbs equation shows that in case of protein folding, stable state will have minimum value of G. unfolded state have higher free energy then the folded one and protein folding have many intermediates, This stage is less populated stage and have maximum energy in the whole system, all above mention factor in the Gibbs equation adjust and finally provide such folded state in which value of G is minimum and this is known as fully folded and stable confirmation(Finkelstein, Badretdinov 1997) (www.biology-online.org/articles/statistical_thermodynamics_taking_walk.html) Chaperones Chaperones are bio molecules which participate in the protein folding. Proteins need assistance in the folding and binds with cofactors .which allow them to fold properly .these cofactor known as chaperones. These chaperones bind with the protein as N terminus of the protein formed and leave ribosome and until and unless protein gain his fully active 3D state and become functional(Tomala, Korona 2008) Chaperones are not only helping in the correct protein folding but they also help protein to maintain its correct 3D structure and prevent them to unfold .these molecules comes in to play when cell is under stress due to favourable conditions are not present and they also known as the H.S.P (heat shock protein).these molecular chaperones are HSP40(Dnaj), HSP60(GroEl), HSP70(Dnak) etc.(Rikhvanov, Romanova Chernoff 2007) Copied from Yon, Betton 1991 Mode of action Chaperones recognise non native protein structure by their exposed hydrophobic regions Chaperones action is driven by ATP and for the activity of the chaperones assistance protein folding need of energy, which is provided by the ATP. These chaperones bind with the intermediate and unfolded protein structure by the utilisation of the ATP intermediates or random coil structure are unfolded and again they are fold in the correct 3D structure (NATIVE structure). Chaperones molecules are task specific that are different molecules perform different functions. For example: HSP70/40 They prevent aggregation and misfolding of newly synthesised protein molecules. HSP60 They unfold intermediate and then fold them properly in to native structure Chaperones are like catalyst, they enhance rate of protein folding and assist protein folding to native structure and after the formation of the native structure they separated. As like catalyst they required energy for the initiation of the process Chaperones activity is much specialised, in stress condition protein get mutated, denature, and aggregate. Which may cause some wrong expression and code for some disease .In such situations they are enough capable to provide personalised treatment to different protein (Yon, Betton 1991)They can easily point out that which protein intermediate structure need to be degraded and which protein intermediate to be stabilise in the native structure and path should be follow for this process. In some mutation destabilise protein can be easily stabilized by HSP70 and some over expression of the specific chaperones. For example: In bacteria HSP70 bind with the protein polypeptide chain during translation after the synthesis some protein released for expression and some may attached for some specialised folding and most destabilise polypeptide chain degraded by chaperones (Tomala, Korona 2008) Chaperones activity is not simple they have multiple steps in their folding mechanism. Some chaperones required some other chaperones intermediate as substrate and then they provide native structure. Hsp90/70 mechanism chain Some chaperones may responsible for disease. it has been found that HSP90 enhance cancer development because many mutated protein mature in the presence of the HSP90 and cause cancer , repressing HSP90 such type of cancer can be able to prevent but problem associated with this is due to this action some non mutagenic protein will be degrade and not express and cause problem. But on other side HSP70 acts as good repressor in neurodegenerative disease and prevent this disease in the fruit flies (Tomala, Korona 2008) Models of protein modelling and structure prediction Plaxco and co-worker model: This model shows that high degree of correlation between folding rate and structural properties of protein explain on the basis of contact order (CO). This can be cross validated from various experiments that folding rate and contact order are dependent to each other. ,    L  is the sequence length   N  is the total number of inter-residue atomic contacts   ÃƒÅ½Ã¢â‚¬ Lij  is the sequence separation of contacting residues  i  and  j Kuznetsov and rackovsky showed that structural based determinants can serve as good determinants of folding rate and many other researchers searching for which structural and sequence based determinants can serve as unique predictor of folding rate (Shakhnovich 2006) Dokholyan and co-workers model: They use simple protein model and find out transition state of src homology 3(SH3) to find out contribution of each amino acid in transition state. They calculate ÃŽÂ ¦ value and on this basis they find high correlation between simulation and experimental ÃŽÂ ¦ value .in the end of their experimental model they conclude that L24 and G24 are two most important residues in the folding of proteins Physics and bioinformatics based models: Physics models are very helpful to understand protein folding rate and route to folding. These physics based models help to understand the various forces and their dynamics in protein folding. These models help to understand: Conformational changes in protein Mechanism of folding, enzyme catalysis, mode of action protein Response to ph salt and denaturants(Brockwell, Smith Radford 2000) Bioinformatics is very important tool to find out the structure and folding pattern of the protein molecules. In this we add our computer based program along with these physics model and within the fraction of time provide us 3D structure of protein. Various databases on web are present which contain information regarding proteins only like NCBI, PUBMED etc. these databases contain all information about proteins by the comparison of our unknown sequence using bioinformatics tools with these databases we can find out possible structure and folding pattern and helpful in drug discovery, possible remedy against disease etc. Now, how collectively these factors works After having the knowledge of these factors now we can easily understand how they act and result to the fully folded 3D structure. Primary structure of protein code for 3D structure and all above factors participate to provide a functional unit. initially primary structure of protein are made of different type of amino acids on the poly peptide back bone and just after the production of the N-terminus protein folding starts and secondary structures alpha helix and beta sheets are formed. In alpha helix all amino acid chain remain in the periphery of the helix and this structure formed due to hydrogen bonding and di-sulphide bonding (Trevino, Scholtz Pace 2007) After the formation of secondary structure, tertiary structure these hydrophobic interaction, hydrogen bonding and charge on the molecule come it to the play now this protein molecule structure fold in such a way to minimise all these forces and try to give an stable confirmation to protein(Chen et al. 2008) Free energy and entropy act simultaneously. After attachment of these secondary structures stability is not uniform in the whole tertiary structure. There may be possibility that two stable structures are joining by unstable and less stable strands and in that case folding take place in such a way to minimise the free energy of the system. This type of stage is known as the intermediate stage. In this stage all amino acids are attached in the structure but the entropy of the system is high and due to which this show high presence of free energy and may have the millions of the possibilities of the intermediate structure. Now protein starts folding from intermediate to the stable or native structure by minimising the interaction between the molecules. Due to which all the hydrophobic or non polar amino acid come in the centre of the structure and the formation of hydrophobic core take place of 3D structure and all polar or hydrophilic molecules come at the periphery of the 3D structur e(Chen et al. 2008). Out of millions of the possibilities there are many path which favour this folding in term of having minimum energy and protein molecule select that path which is shortest and this may contain several steps in folding and ultimately leads to the formation of native 3D structure Copied from Ma, Chen Zhang 2007 There is always some equilibrium in some folded and intermediates state and molecules may be aggregate. this depend upon the pH, Temp, Pressure and denaturation agents and the protein structure destabilise it start affecting other native protein structure in this stage chaperones act as cofactors and help in the and maintaining native structure of protein(Ma, Chen Zhang 2007) SUMMARY In the protein folding 3D structure of protein plays an important role in the protein expression and their function. Information regarding protein folding is present in the primary structure of the protein which bioenergetics can be determined by bound amino acid. Hydrophobic forces play an important role. They all concentrate at the centre of the molecules and hydrophilic at the periphery of the structure. Hydrogen bonding plays an important role due to which all polar molecules bound with the surrounding medium in cell and makes protein molecule structure rigid and compressed. Protein folding is a spontaneous process in which entropy of the molecule is decreasing and finally provides a folded structure. Protein native structure must have low value of Gibbs free energy, entropy, and enthalpy and lower the value, higher will be the degree of protein stability. Protein may unfold due to the presence of the unfavourable condition like temp, pressure, pH, and denaturing agent. In such a case special type of molecules help in the folding known as chaperones and helpful in maintaining native structure of protein.

Lord of the Flies – How is the idea of the beast developed?

The idea of a beast on the island emerges early in the story, which quickly evolves from the imagination of one little boy. At first the idea is superficially rejected but subconsciously absorbed and as a result it continues to develop. The concept of a dangerous presence on the island originates when one of the children mentions he has seen a â€Å"snake – thing. Ever so big†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.in the woods, † an idea which is quickly dismissed by the older boys as part of his imagination. Soon, many of the older boys begin to wonder about the existence of some kind of beast, and although many were not willing to admit this, its fear was demonstrated by their horrible nightmares and night screams. Later, talk of beasts emerges at an assembly where the vast majority agreed on its presence on the island and although Simon had already figured out that this idea came from their inner fear, he was not able to get this point across. Orwell reveals the reader, through Simon, how the creation of the beast is used to take the blame for all the chaos and disasters. Furthermore, the creation of the beast is just an excuse to believe the cause of evil is due to it, not to them. As a result, it becomes critical to find a definite shape for the beast and prove its existence as this would automatically release them from the guilt the evil emitted. Soon after, a dead parachutist's corpse is confused with the beast, and the children become convinced of the existence of the beast. In a later assembly, Jack decides to leave the group as he refuses to obey more rules. Many others decide to follow him, as they felt more secure with him. The idea of the existence of the beast gave Jack control over the other children. The concept of a beast is allowed to develop due one main reason; fear. Fear of the unknown, together with the children's imagination, built up the idea of a beast inhabiting the island. Yet, many other factors contribute to its development, such as Jack's desire for control. Throughout this novel, the boys are constantly faced with various fears, yet nothing compares to the fear they feel towards the beast. The beast represents how human beings will try to convince themselves that evil is not present inside them, by making someone or something else seem to be the cause for the evil. The beast is a metaphor used to demonstrate how the imagination can be manipulated to let it grow; à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½The beast had teeth, à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ said Ralph, à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½and big black eyes.à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ Yet Golding's purpose in developing the concept of the beast was to demonstrate the connection between evil and fear, to show us that fear is the thought and evil is the reaction, as it is proved by the murder of Simon, when he was confused with the beast which inhabited in their minds.

The Ethical Dilemma Of Bangladesh - 1765 Words

Problem Recognition/Ethical Dilemma Repeated disasters due to poor work conditions has raised concern for everyone around the globe. These disasters have everyone wondering when will someone step up to make a change so that these occurrences will not continue to happen to the struggling people of Bangladesh. Outsiders feel as if the retailers who use Bangladesh garment industry should start doing more to ensure work conditions are safe for employees of the factories. Mr. Sohel Rana, the owner of Rana Plaza, should be responsible for all decisions concerning Rana Plaza. He should be the one to step up and cease operations of the plaza until work conditions improved. He was aware of the work conditions, but he insisted that they were†¦show more content†¦The country of Bangladesh as a whole and employees in these textile factories has the most to gain in the outcome of improved work conditions and higher wages for employees. Better working conditions will allow for the factori es to continue operations which will generate income for the country and grow the economy. Employees of the factories will live a more fluent life with an increase in wages. Employees will also accomplish more without having to be concerned about their safety and whether they will make it home to their families or not. Identification and Evaluation of Possible Alternatives There are a wide array of alternatives that could be put in place to improve the work conditions in the factories in Bangladesh. A governing board can be created comprising of leaders from retailers who use the factory, representatives from the United Nations International Labor Organization, and political leaders in the United States, Europe, and China. This will allow for the leaders from the retailers to get a first-hand look at the work conditions in the factories. They can make adjustments according to the problems that are present so that all eyes will not be on them when things go south. That will also be their social justice by showing that they care about the people and that their work conditions are a top priority. The United Nations International Labor Organization governs all labor globally. They will be able to approveShow MoreRelatedThe Culture Of Bangladesh And Canada1497 Words   |  6 Pagesbusiness culture pres ent in Bangladesh and Canada. This assignment covers the similarities and differences which exist between two different cultures followed in Bangladesh and Canada. According to Mihaela (2014), the culture of a country contributes to the development of any country it helps in attracting the opportunities in business. The business culture of every country is quietly affected by the social life and cultural belief followed by people resides there. 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Machiavelli Just Society Analysis - 1331 Words

Justice comes in many form, economically, politically, and culturally. Justice has been explored and has posed with different definition in many eras. It is subjective to everyone and no two people has the same feeling. Individuals throughout society have their own distinctive explanation for justice. A truly just society can happen, but it will never be in a way where everyone will agree. I believe a just society stands with a strong leader that focuses on a unified cultural change in their country for the benefit of the people. King and Machiavelli both pursues a just society with equality between any race, unity, and are an open-minded leader. When it comes to cultural change for the sake of unifying the country no one does it better†¦show more content†¦Through his word choice it makes it clear that it is ideally the best choice to be cruel when needed because it is cruel to completely pretend that it is not necessary. The strength, intelligence, and experience clearly s how Machiavelli’s ideal to pursue a just society that keeps everyone in check and unified with one another. When examining Machiavelli political ideals, it is hard to look at it without saying this is cruel and not ideal in any sense. Machiavelli is a prime example for a strong leader that pursues justice through unification and has shown to be very open-minded. Justice doesn’t just come through cruelty and strength, it also requires intelligence with careful studies. As exhibited in the prior quote, he takes in historical mistakes and success to shape his ideal. To have a culture with justice, Machiavelli pushes that â€Å"It is necessary for a prince who wish to maintain his position to learn how not to be good, and to use this knowledge or not to use it accordingly† (224). It is quite evident that Machiavelli is willing to use the full extent of his power without fear. 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Ali also doubts Machiavelli’s understanding of international relations, citing his pessimism toward man. Ali’s analysis offers a view of how Machiavellian tactics work politically and morally in today’s society. To Machiavelli, the acquisition of powerRead MoreNiccolo Machiavelli s The Prince1699 Words   |  7 Pagespower. This popular depiction is due to Niccolo Machiavelli’s harsh portrayal of the interlaced relationship between power and politics in his treatise, The Prince. Machiavelli begins his work by contending that it is â€Å"more effective† to reveal the â€Å"practical truth of a subject† rather than â€Å"depend on [his] fancies for it†(Machiavelli 2524). 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Their ideals of a prince overlap in ways, but overall the re are glaring differences in how they think a ‘prince’ should rule. A strong example

High School Students and Their Allowance Management

Introduction: Money is involved in many things and situations around the world; every person had experienced, even once, to see and to hold money, so it’s indeed a big part of everyone’s life. It can be in the form of metal coin or piece of paper, but people value this thing to sustain their everyday needs like food, water, and clothes. One can’t just go to the market to buy foods if he/she doesn’t have money right? It can also provide things for people’s satisfaction like gadgets, appliances and accessories. There’s an idiom in which it stated that â€Å"money doesn’t grow on trees†, meaning a person should be careful of how much money he spends because there is only a limited amount. However, there are ways on how earn it.†¦show more content†¦Since the current generation became modernized, things really got to be changed. People have various thoughts in almost everything, especially money. Some people prefer to spend their cash carelessly, while others thought of saving it. This thing affects the teenagers’ point of view about money and ways of managing it that is why there are problems occurring under allowance management. 2. Statement of the Problem: There are problems that can occur in a student’s allowance management like: †¢ Are high school students wise enough to manage their allowances well? As a first timer, they need guidance and advice from adults or elders. High school students should be supervised in order to know if they spend it one something valuable or important and not something unbeneficial. Kids these days tend to spend their money on things that is not good for them. â€Å"Be reasonable about the amount you are giving to your children.† –Shannon Wakeland †¢ Do they save money? With a bigger or expensive thing on mind that they really want to have, teens will have to save up to be able to buy it. This practice could also help them in the near future. 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A Game of Thrones Chapter Thirty-eight Free Essays

Tyrion You want eat?† Mord asked, glowering. He had a plate of oiled beans in one thick, stub-fingered hand. Tyrion Lannister was starved, but he refused to let this brute see him cringe. We will write a custom essay sample on A Game of Thrones Chapter Thirty-eight or any similar topic only for you Order Now â€Å"A leg of lamb would be pleasant,† he said, from the heap of soiled straw in the corner of his cell. â€Å"Perhaps a dish of peas and onions, some fresh baked bread with butter, and a flagon of mulled wine to wash it down. Or beer, if that’s easier. I try not to be overly particular.† â€Å"Is beans,† Mord said. â€Å"Here.† He held out the plate. Tyrion sighed. The turnkey was twenty stone of gross stupidity, with brown rotting teeth and small dark eyes. The left side of his face was slick with scar where an axe had cut off his ear and part of his cheek. He was as predictable as he was ugly, but Tyrion was hungry. He reached up for the plate. Mord jerked it away, grinning. â€Å"Is here,† he said, holding it out beyond Tyrion’s reach. The dwarf climbed stiffly to his feet, every joint aching. â€Å"Must we play the same fool’s game with every meal?† He made another grab for the beans. Mord shambled backward, grinning through his rotten teeth. â€Å"Is here, dwarf man.† He held the plate out at arm’s length, over the edge where the cell ended and the sky began. â€Å"You not want eat? Here. Come take.† Tyrion’s arms were too short to reach the plate, and he was not about to step that close to the edge. All it would take would be a quick shove of Mord’s heavy white belly, and he would end up a sickening red splotch on the stones of Sky, like so many other prisoners of the Eyrie over the centuries. â€Å"Come to think on it, I’m not hungry after all,† he declared, retreating to the corner of his cell. Mord grunted and opened his thick fingers. The wind took the plate, flipping it over as it fell. A handful of beans sprayed back at them as the food tumbled out of sight. The turnkey laughed, his gut shaking like a bowl of pudding. Tyrion felt a pang of rage. â€Å"You fucking son of a pox-ridden ass,† he spat. â€Å"I hope you die of a bloody flux.† For that, Mord gave him a kick, driving a steel-toed boot hard into Tyrion’s ribs on the way out. â€Å"I take it back!† he gasped as he doubled over on the straw. â€Å"I’ll kill you myself, I swear it!† The heavy iron-bound door slammed shut. Tyrion heard the rattle of keys. For a small man, he had been cursed with a dangerously big mouth, he reflected as he crawled back to his corner of what the Arryns laughably called their dungeon. He huddled beneath the thin blanket that was his only bedding, staring out at a blaze of empty blue sky and distant mountains that seemed to go on forever, wishing he still had the shadowskin cloak he’d won from Marillion at dice, after the singer had stolen it off the body of that brigand chief. The skin had smelled of blood and mold, but it was warm and thick. Mord had taken it the moment he laid eyes on it. The wind tugged at his blanket with gusts sharp as talons. His cell was miserably small, even for a dwarf. Not five feet away, where a wall ought to have been, where a wall would be in a proper dungeon, the floor ended and the sky began. He had plenty of fresh air and sunshine, and the moon and stars by night, but Tyrion would have traded it all in an instant for the dankest, gloomiest pit in the bowels of the Casterly Rock. â€Å"You fly,† Mord had promised him, when he’d shoved him into the cell. â€Å"Twenty day, thirty, fifty maybe. Then you fly.† The Arryns kept the only dungeon in the realm where the prisoners were welcome to escape at will. That first day, after girding up his courage for hours, Tyrion had lain flat on his stomach and squirmed to the edge, to poke out his head and look down. Sky was six hundred feet below, with nothing between but empty air. If he craned his neck out as far as it could go, he could see other cells to his right and left and above him. He was a bee in a stone honeycomb, and someone had torn off his wings. It was cold in the cell, the wind screamed night and day, and worst of all, the floor sloped. Ever so slightly, yet it was enough. He was afraid to close his eyes, afraid that he might roll over in his steep and wake in sudden terror as he went sliding off the edge. Small wonder the sky cells drove men mad. Gods save me, some previous tenant had written on the wall in something that looked suspiciously like blood, the blue is calling. At first Tyrion wondered who he’d been, and what had become of him; later, he decided that he would rather not know. If only he had shut his mouth . . . The wretched boy had started it, looking down on him from a throne of carved weirwood beneath the moon-and-falcon banners of House Arryn. Tyrion Lannister had been looked down on all his life, but seldom by rheumy-eyed six-year-olds who needed to stuff fat cushions under their cheeks to lift them to the height of a man. â€Å"Is he the bad man?† the boy had asked, clutching his doll. â€Å"He is,† the Lady Lysa had said from the lesser throne beside him. She was all in blue, powdered and perfumed for the suitors who filled her court. â€Å"He’s so small,† the Lord of the Eyrie said, giggling. â€Å"This is Tyrion the Imp, of House Lannister, who murdered your father.† She raised her voice so it carried down the length of High Hall of the Eyrie, ringing off the milk-white walls and the slender pillars, so every man could hear it. â€Å"He slew the Hand of the King!† â€Å"Oh, did I kill him too?† Tyrion had said, like a fool. That would have been a very good time to have kept his mouth closed and his head bowed. He could see that now; seven hells, he had seen it then. The High Hall of the Arryns was long and austere, with a forbidding coldness to its walls of blue-veined white marble, but the faces around him had been colder by far. The power of Casterly Rock was far away, and there were no friends of the Lannisters in the Vale of Arryn. Submission and silence would have been his best defenses. But Tyrion’s mood had been too foul for sense. To his shame, he had faltered during the last leg of their day-long climb up to the Eyrie, his stunted legs unable to take him any higher. Bronn had carried him the rest of the way, and the humiliation poured oil on the flames of his anger. â€Å"It would seem I’ve been a busy little fellow,† he said with bitter sarcasm. â€Å"I wonder when I found the time to do all this slaying and murdering.† He ought to have remembered who he was dealing with. Lysa Arryn and her half-sane weakling son had not been known at court for their love of wit, especially when it was directed at them. â€Å"Imp,† Lysa said coldly, â€Å"you will guard that mocking tongue of yours and speak to my son politely, or I promise you will have cause to regret it. Remember where you are. This is the Eyrie, and these are knights of the Vale you see around you, true men who loved Jon Arryn well. Every one of them would die for me.† â€Å"Lady Arryn, should any harm come to me, my brother Jaime will be pleased to see that they do.† Even as he spat out the words, Tyrion knew they were folly. â€Å"Can you fly, my lord of Lannister?† Lady Lysa asked. â€Å"Does a dwarf have wings? If not, you would be wiser to swallow the next threat that comes to mind.† â€Å"I made no threats,† Tyrion said. â€Å"That was a promise.† Little Lord Robert hopped to his feet at that, so upset he dropped his doll. â€Å"You can’t hurt us,† he screamed. â€Å"No one can hurt us here. Tell him, Mother, tell him he can’t hurt us here.† The boy began to twitch. â€Å"The Eyrie is impregnable,† Lysa Arryn declared calmly. She drew her son close, holding him safe in the circle of her plump white arms. â€Å"The Imp is trying to frighten us, sweet baby. The Lannisters are all liars. No one will hurt my sweet boy.† The hell of it was, she was no doubt right. Having seen what it took to get here, Tyrion could well imagine how it would be for a knight trying to fight his way up in armor, while stones and arrows poured down from above and enemies contested with him for every step. Nightmare did not begin to describe it. Small wonder the Eyrie had never been taken. Still, Tyrion had been unable to silence himself. â€Å"Not impregnable,† he said, â€Å"merely inconvenient.† Young Robert pointed down, his hand trembling. â€Å"You’re a liar. Mother, I want to see him fly.† Two guardsmen in sky-blue cloaks seized Tyrion by the arms, lifting him off his floor. The gods only know what might have happened then were it not for Catelyn Stark. â€Å"Sister,† she called out from where she stood below the thrones, â€Å"I beg you to remember, this man is my prisoner. I will not have him harmed.† Lysa Arryn glanced at her sister coolly for a moment, then rose and swept down on Tyrion, her long skirts trailing after her. For an instant he feared she would strike him, but instead she commanded them to release him. Her men shoved him to the floor, his legs went out from under him, and Tyrion fell. He must have made quite a sight as he struggled to his knees, only to feel his right leg spasm, sending him sprawling once more. Laughter boomed up and down the High Hall of the Arryns. â€Å"My sister’s little guest is too weary to stand,† Lady Lysa announced. â€Å"Ser Vardis, take him down to the dungeon. A rest in one of our sky cells will do him much good.† The guardsmen jerked him upright. Tyrion Lannister dangled between them, kicking feebly, his face red with shame. â€Å"I will remember this,† he told them all as they carried him off. And so he did, for all the good it did him. At first he had consoled himself that this imprisonment could not last long. Lysa Arryn wanted to humble him, that was all. She would send for him again, and soon. If not her, then Catelyn Stark would want to question him. This time he would guard his tongue more closely. They dare not kill him out of hand; he was still a Lannister of Casterly Rock, and if they shed his blood, it would mean war. Or so he had told himself. Now he was not so certain. Perhaps his captors only meant to let him rot here, but he feared he did not have the strength to rot for long. He was growing weaker every day, and it was only a matter of time until Mord’s kicks and blows did him serious harm, provided the gaoler did not starve him to death first. A few more nights of cold and hunger, and the blue would start calling to him too. He wondered what was happening beyond the walls (such as they were) of his cell. Lord Tywin would surely have sent out riders when the word reached him. Jaime might be leading a host through the Mountains of the Moon even now . . . unless he was riding north against Winterfell instead. Did anyone outside the Vale even suspect where Catelyn Stark had taken him? He wondered what Cersei would do when she heard. The king could order him freed, but would Robert listen to his queen or his Hand? Tyrion had no illusions about the king’s love for his sister. If Cersei kept her wits about her, she would insist the king sit in judgment of Tyrion himself. Even Ned Stark could scarcely object to that, not without impugning the honor of the king. And Tyrion would be only too glad to take his chances in a trial. Whatever murders they might lay at his door, the Starks had no proof of anything so far as he could see. Let them make their case before the Iron Throne and the lords of the land. It would be the end of them. If only Cersei were clever enough to see that . . . Tyrion Lannister sighed. His sister was not without a certain low cunning, but her pride blinded her. She would see the insult in this, not the opportunity. And Jaime was even worse, rash and headstrong and quick to anger. His brother never untied a knot when he could slash it in two with his sword. He wondered which of them had sent the footpad to silence the Stark boy, and whether they had truly conspired at the death of Lord Arryn. If the old Hand had been murdered, it was deftly and subtly done. Men of his age died of sudden illness all the time. In contrast, sending some oaf with a stolen knife after Brandon Stark struck him as unbelievably clumsy. And wasn’t that peculiar, come to think on it . . . Tyrion shivered. Now there was a nasty suspicion. Perhaps the direwolf and the lion were not the only beasts in the woods, and if that was true, someone was using him as a catspaw. Tyrion Lannister hated being used. He would have to get out of here, and soon. His chances of overpowering Mord were small to none, and no one was about to smuggle him a six-hundred-foot-long rope, so he would have to talk himself free. His mouth had gotten him into this cell; it could damn well get him out. Tyrion pushed himself to his feet, doing his best to ignore the slope of the floor beneath him, with its ever-so-subtle tug toward the edge. He hammered on the door with a fist. â€Å"Mord!† he shouted. â€Å"Turnkey! Mord, I want you!† He had to keep it up a good ten minutes before he heard footsteps. Tyrion stepped back an instant before the door opened with a crash. â€Å"Making noise,† Mord growled, with blood in his eyes. Dangling from one meaty hand was a leather strap, wide and thick, doubled over in his fist. Never show them you’re afraid, Tyrion reminded himself. â€Å"How would you like to be rich?† he asked. Mord hit him. He swung the strap backhand, lazily, but the leather caught Tyrion high on the arm. The force of it staggered him, and the pain made him grit his teeth. â€Å"No mouth, dwarf man,† Mord warned him. â€Å"Gold,† Tyrion said, miming a smile. â€Å"Casterly Rock is full of gold . . . ahhhh . . . † This time the blow was a forehand, and Mord put more of his arm into the swing, making the leather crack and jump. It caught Tyrion in the ribs and dropped him to his knees, wimpering. He forced himself to look up at the gaoler. â€Å"As rich as the Lannisters,† he wheezed. â€Å"That’s what they say, Mord—† Mord grunted. The strap whistled through the air and smashed Tyrion full in the face. The pain was so bad he did not remember falling, but when he opened his eyes again he was on the floor of his cell. His ear was ringing, and his mouth was full of blood. He groped for purchase, to push himself up, and his fingers brushed against . . . nothing. Tyrion snatched his hand back as fast as if it had been scalded, and tried his best to stop breathing. He had fallen right on the edge, inches from the blue. â€Å"More to say?† Mord held the strap between his fists and gave it a sharp pull. The snap made Tyrion jump. The turnkey laughed. He won’t push me over, Tyrion told himself desperately as he crawled away from the edge. Catelyn Stark wants me alive, he doesn’t dare kill me. He wiped the blood off his lips with the back of his hand, grinned, and said, â€Å"That was a stiff one, Mord.† The gaoler squinted at him, trying to decide if he was being mocked. â€Å"I could make good use of a strong man like you.† The strap flew at him, but this time Tyrion was able to cringe away from it. He took a glancing blow to the shoulder, nothing more. â€Å"Gold,† he repeated, scrambling backward like a crab, â€Å"more gold than you’ll see here in a lifetime. Enough to buy land, women, horses . . . you could be a lord. Lord Mord.† Tyrion hawked up a glob of blood and phlegm and spat it out into the sky. â€Å"Is no gold,† Mord said. He’s listening! Tyrion thought. â€Å"They relieved me of my purse when they captured me, but the gold is still mine. Catelyn Stark might take a man prisoner, but she’d never stoop to rob him. That wouldn’t be honorable. Help me, and all the gold is yours.† Mord’s strap licked out, but it was a halfhearted, desultory swing, slow and contemptuous. Tyrion caught the leather in his hand and held it prisoned. â€Å"There will be no risk to you. All you need do is deliver a message.† The gaoler yanked his leather strap free of Tyrion’s grasp. â€Å"Message,† he said, as if he had never heard the word before. His frown made deep creases in his brow. â€Å"You heard me, my lord. Only carry my word to your lady. Tell her . . . † What? What would possibly make Lysa Anyn relent? The inspiration came to Tyrion Lannister suddenly. † . . . .tell her that I wish to confess my crimes.† Mord raised his arm and Tyrion braced himself for another blow, but the turnkey hesitated. Suspicion and greed warred in his eyes. He wanted that gold, yet he feared a trick; he had the look of a man who had often been tricked. â€Å"Is lie,† he muttered darkly. â€Å"Dwarf man cheat me.† â€Å"I will put my promise in writing,† Tyrion vowed. Some illiterates held writing in disdain; others seemed to have a superstitious reverence for the written word, as if it were some sort of magic. Fortunately, Mord was one of the latter. The turnkey lowered the strap. â€Å"Writing down gold. Much gold.† â€Å"Oh, much gold,† Tyrion assured him. â€Å"The purse is just a taste, my friend. My brother wears armor of solid gold plate.† In truth, Jaime’s armor was gilded steel, but this oaf would never know the difference. Mord fingered his strap thoughtfully, but in the end, he relented and went to fetch paper and ink. When the letter was written, the gaoler frowned at it suspiciously. â€Å"Now deliver my message,† Tyrion urged. He was shivering in his sleep when they came for him, late that night. Mord opened the door but kept his silence. Ser Vardis Egen woke Tyrion with the point of his boot. â€Å"On your feet, Imp. My lady wants to see you.† Tyrion rubbed the sleep from his eyes and put on a grimace he scarcely felt. â€Å"No doubt she does, but what makes you think I wish to see her?† Ser Vardis frowned. Tyrion remembered him well from the years he had spent at King’s Landing as the captain of the Hand’s household guard. A square, plain face, silver hair, a heavy build, and no humor whatsoever. â€Å"Your wishes are not my concern. On your feet, or I’ll have you carried.† Tyrion clambered awkwardly to his feet. â€Å"A cold night,† he said casually, â€Å"and the High Hall is so drafty. I don’t wish to catch a chill. Mord, if you would be so good, fetch my cloak.† The gaoler squinted at him, face dull with suspicion. â€Å"My cloak,† Tyrion repeated. â€Å"The shadowskin you took from me for safekeeping. You recall.† â€Å"Get him the damnable cloak,† Ser Vardis said. Mord did not dare grumble. He gave Tyrion a glare that promised future retribution, yet he went for the cloak. When he draped it around his prisoner’s neck, Tyrion smiled. â€Å"My thanks. I shall think of you whenever I wear it.† He flung the trailing end of the long fur over his right shoulder, and felt warm for the first time in days. â€Å"Lead on, Ser Vardis.† The High Hall of the Arryns was aglow with the light of fifty torches, burning in the sconces along the walls. The Lady Lysa wore black silk, with the moon-and-falcon sewn on her breast in pearls. Since she did not look the sort to join the Night’s Watch, Tyrion could only imagine that she had decided mourning clothes were appropriate garb for a confession. Her long auburn hair, woven into an elaborate braid, fell across her left shoulder. The taller throne beside her was empty; no doubt the little Lord of the Eyrie was off shaking in his sleep. Tyrion was thankful for that much, at least. He bowed deeply and took a moment to glance around the hall. Lady Arryn had summoned her knights and retainers to hear his confession, as he had hoped. He saw Ser Brynden Tully’s craggy face and Lord Nestor Royce’s bluff one. Beside Nestor stood a younger man with fierce black side-whiskers who could only be his heir, Ser Albar. Most of the principal houses of the Vale were represented. Tyrion noted Ser Lyn Corbray, slender as a sword, Lord Hunter with his gouty legs, the widowed Lady Waynwood surrounded by her sons. Others sported sigils he did not know; broken lance, green viper, burning tower, winged chalice. Among the lords of the Vale were several of his companions from the high road; Ser Rodrik Cassel, pale from half-healed wounds, stood with Ser Willis Wode beside him. Marillion the singer had found a new woodharp. Tyrion smiled; whatever happened here tonight, he did not wish it to happen in secret, and there was no one like a singer for spreading a story near and far. In the rear of the hall, Bronn lounged beneath a pillar. The freerider’s black eyes were fixed on Tyrion, and his hand lay lightly on the pommel of his sword. Tyrion gave him a long look, wondering . . . Catelyn Stark spoke first. â€Å"You wish to confess your crimes, we are told.† â€Å"I do, my lady,† Tyrion answered. Lysa Arryn smiled at her sister. â€Å"The sky cells always break them. The gods can see them there, and there is no darkness to hide in.† â€Å"He does not look broken to me,† Lady Catelyn said. Lady Lysa paid her no mind. â€Å"Say what you will,† she commanded Tyrion. And now to roll the dice, he thought with another quick glance back at Bronn. â€Å"Where to begin? I am a vile little man, I confess it. My crimes and sins are beyond counting, my lords and ladies. I have lain with whores, not once but hundreds of times. I have wished my own lord father dead, and my sister, our gracious queen, as well.† Behind him, someone chuckled. â€Å"I have not always treated my servants with kindness. I have gambled. I have even cheated, I blush to admit. I have said many cruel and malicious things about the noble lords and ladies of the court.† That drew outright laughter. â€Å"Once I—† â€Å"Silence!† Lysa Arryn’s pale round face had turned a burning pink. â€Å"What do you imagine you are doing, dwarf?† Tyrion cocked his head to one side. â€Å"Why, confessing my crimes, my lady—† Catelyn Stark took a step forward. â€Å"You are accused of sending a hired knife to slay my son Bran in his bed, and of conspiring to murder Lord Jon Arryn, the Hand of the King.† Tyrion gave a helpless shrug. â€Å"Those crimes I cannot confess, I fear. I know nothing of any murders.† Lady Lysa rose from her weirwood throne. â€Å"I will not be made mock of. You have had your little jape, Imp. I trust you enjoyed it. Ser Vardis, take him back to the dungeon . . . but this time find him a smaller cell, with a floor more sharply sloped.† â€Å"Is this how justice is done in the Vale?† Tyrion roared, so loudly that Ser Vardis froze for an instant. â€Å"Does honor stop at the Bloody Gate? You accuse me of crimes, I deny them, so you throw me into an open cell to freeze and starve.† He lifted his head, to give them all a good look at the bruises Mord had left on his face. â€Å"Where is the king’s justice? Is the Eyrie not part of the Seven Kingdoms? I stand accused, you say. Very well. I demand a trial! Let me speak, and let my truth or falsehood be judged openly, in the sight of gods and men.† A low murmuring filled the High Hall. He had her, Tyrion knew. He was highborn, the son of the most powerful lord in the realm, the brother of the queen. He could not be denied a trial. Guardsmen in sky-blue cloaks had started toward Tyrion, but Ser Vardis bid them halt and looked to Lady Lysa. Her small mouth twitched in a petulant smile. â€Å"If you are tried and found to be guilty of the crimes for which you stand accused, then by the king’s own laws, you must pay with your life’s blood. We keep no headsman in the Eyrie, my lord of Lannister. Open the Moon Door.† The press of spectators parted. A narrow weirwood door stood between two slender marble pillars, a crescent moon carved in the white wood. Those standing closest edged backward as a pair of guardsmen marched through. One man removed the heavy bronze bars; the second pulled the door inward. Their blue cloaks rose snapping from their shoulders, caught in the sudden gust of wind that came howling through the open door. Beyond was the emptiness of the night sky, speckled with cold uncaring stars. â€Å"Behold the king’s justice,† Lysa Arryn said. Torch flames fluttered like pennons along the walls, and here and there the odd torch guttered out. â€Å"Lysa, I think this unwise,† Catelyn Stark said as the black wind swirled around the hall. Her sister ignored her. â€Å"You want a trial, my lord of Lannister. Very well, a trial you shall have. My son will listen to whatever you care to say, and you shall hear his judgment. Then you may leave . . . by one door or the other.† She looked so pleased with herself, Tyrion thought, and small wonder. How could a trial threaten her, when her weakling son was the lord judge? Tyrion glanced at her Moon Door. Mother, I want to see him fly! the boy had said. How many men had the snot-nosed little wretch sent through that door already? â€Å"I thank you, my good lady, but I see no need to trouble Lord Robert,† Tyrion said politely. â€Å"The gods know the truth of my innocence. I will have their verdict, not the judgment of men. I demand trial by combat.† A storm of sudden laughter filled the High Hall of the Arryns. Lord Nestor Royce snorted, Ser Willis chuckled, Ser Lyn Corbray guffawed, and others threw back their heads and howled until tears ran down their faces. Marillion clumsily plucked a gay note on his new woodharp with the fingers of his broken hand. Even the wind seemed to whistle with derision as it came skirling through the Moon Door. Lysa Arryn’s watery blue eyes looked uncertain. He had caught her off balance. â€Å"You have that right, to be sure.† The young knight with the green viper embroidered on his surcoat stepped forward and went to one knee. â€Å"My lady, I beg the boon of championing your cause.† â€Å"The honor should be mine,† old Lord Hunter said. â€Å"For the love I bore your lord husband, let me avenge his death.† â€Å"My father served Lord Jon faithfully as High Steward of the Vale,† Ser Albar Royce boomed. â€Å"Let me serve his son in this.† â€Å"The gods favor the man with the just cause,† said Ser Lyn Corbray, â€Å"yet often that turns out to be the man with the surest sword. We all know who that is.† He smiled modestly. A dozen other men all spoke at once, clamoring to be heard. Tyrion found it disheartening to realize so many strangers were eager to kill him. Perhaps this had not been such a clever plan after all. Lady Lysa raised a hand for silence. â€Å"I thank you, my lords, as I know my son would thank you if he were among us. No men in the Seven Kingdoms are as bold and true as the knights of the Vale. Would that I could grant you all this honor. Yet I can choose only one.† She gestured. â€Å"Ser Vardis Egen, you were ever my lord husband’s good right hand. You shall be our champion.† Ser Vardis had been singularly silent. â€Å"My lady,† he said gravely, sinking to one knee, â€Å"pray give this burden to another, I have no taste for it. The man is no warrior. Look at him. A dwarf, half my size and lame in the legs. It would be shameful to slaughter such a man and call it justice.† Oh, excellent, Tyrion thought. â€Å"I agree.† Lysa glared at him. â€Å"You demanded a trial by combat.† â€Å"And now I demand a champion, such as you have chosen for yourself. My brother Jaime will gladly take my part, I know.† â€Å"Your precious Kingslayer is hundreds of leagues from here,† snapped Lysa Arryn. â€Å"Send a bird for him. I will gladly await his arrival.† â€Å"You will face Ser Vardis on the morrow.† â€Å"Singer,† Tyrion said, turning to Marillion, â€Å"when you make a ballad of this, be certain you tell them how Lady Arryn denied the dwarf the right to a champion, and sent him forth lame and bruised and hobbling to face her finest knight.† â€Å"I deny you nothing!† Lysa Arryn said, her voice peeved and shrill with irritation. â€Å"Name your champion, Imp . . . if you think you can find a man to die for you.† â€Å"If it is all the same to you, I’d sooner find one to kill for me.† Tyrion looked over the long hall. No one moved. For a long moment he wondered if it had all been a colossal blunder. Then there was a stirring in the rear of the chamber. â€Å"I’ll stand for the dwarf,† Bronn called out. How to cite A Game of Thrones Chapter Thirty-eight, Essay examples

The Economic Determinants of House Price

Question: Discuss the economic determinants of house price and use this understanding to discuss house price trends in the UK since 1980. Based on these findings and expectations for the macroeconomy. Answer: House prices in uk The rise and fall Housing prices analysed for the period 1980-2013 reflect that 2009 saw the biggest fall of 7.6 % and since then house prices have started to climb again and the past 12 months have seen the second highest inflation in property since 1980. According to office for national statistics (ons), 1988 recorded the biggest house price growth, although house prices have risen almost as quickly in 2014 also since 1980. Analysis say (baum baum, 2015) of the house price data has shown that prices in the uk fell annually only in seven of the last 34 years, otherwise property values have been increasing at an average of 6.9% every year since 1980 and have reached to an average price of 242,000 in 2013. Reasons An analysis by report has shown two main reasons for the declining rate of first-time home owners the rising costs and the shrinking savings. Ons has also confirmed this as the statistics show that last years price rises are second only to the ones in 1988, when the price of a home had risen by over 12%. The latest ons data shows that the average price of a home in the uk stands at 271,000 and this is 10% higher than the corresponding price a year ago (erp akkermans (ed), 2012). First-time buyers The factors discussed above in this paper have also been confirmed by the housing charity major shelter (www.shelter.org.uk/) which has stated that first-time buyers have to save for a decade for the initial deposit. This has also been seconded by a report of ons which states that property ownership of first-time buyers has shown a steep decline during the period 1980-2013. Up till 2002 of this period, first-time buyers recorded 486,000 number of mortgages each year, but the number sharply fell after that, especially in 2003, when it recorded fall of 31% and it touched the highest fall in 2008 at 47% (baum, 2009). Factors for decline This paper found that 67% in the 25-34 age group were homeowners in 1991 and this slumped to 43% by 2012. In the age group 16-24, 36% were owners of a home in 1991, which went down to 10% in 2012. The only steady age group was 35-44 year which slumped from 78% to 64% for the corresponding period. This paper analysed that the biggest factor for the steep fall was the initial deposit requirement for securing a mortgage and this is also confirmed by the ons. Analysis by this paper have shown that the deposit amount, as a percentage of the purchase price, has increased by 10% between 1988 and 2013, going upward from 12% to 22% for first-time buyers (sexton bogusz, 2013). Affordability of housing in uk Factors affecting affordability A report from housing charity major shelter has shown that in 70% of counties across uk it takes a young household more than a decade to save for the 20% deposit amount. However, in london, says (myers, 2012), it takes couples almost 26 years before they have save enough for the deposit and single people spend 29 years waiting because of the escalating prices. This paper also came across instances where those trying to buy a house of their own had to save one-fifth of their income after essential spending and tax. Reasons All this is happening despite the help to buy scheme of the government launched in 2013, which requires a deposit of only 5% for first-time buyers. Although a report by the council for mortgage lenders shows that 300,000 first-time buyers made use of the scheme, making it the highest number since 2007. This paper also came across that mortgages worth 205.6billion were executed last year, making it the largest lending amount since 2008 (kao, sung chen (ed), 2014). The decline According to a bank of england report lenders are less willing to lend to those buyers which deposit less than 10%. But this paper has researched that because of 10-year fixes becoming available at just 2.94%, more first-time buyers will commit for long-term borrowings. This becomes important in the wake of data from ons which shows that price for a house, paid by a first-time buyer, was up by 11% to 208,000 as compared to last year (megarry et al, 2012). Interest rates on borrowings in uk Although bank of england has lowered the standard variable rates, it has not reduced the base rates which continue to remain at 0.5%. Despite low interest rates, many first-time buyers felt restricted to afford a mortgage because of the falling monthly disposable incomes after they take care of their taxes, rent, bills and other loan instalments. Nearly 29% of them have experienced that their debt payments had gone up in the past two years because of the rising costs and high lending rate (mcfarlane, hopkins nield, 2012). Supply of housing in uk As per the research done by this paper, uk requires 250,000 new houses every year to fulfil the growing demand. This study has revealed that this should comprise of 125,000 houses at the market price, 50,000 houses at intermediate prices, including the ones available at affordable rentals or under shared-ownership and 75,000 houses for social renters. Against this pending demand, availability is just 50% and the number of affordable houses has fallen sharply. Apart from this, the main concern of the government should be the steep shortage in the social housing segment, which has gone down by over 66% since 2010. Although completion of new houses has increased to 31,130 dwellings in the third quarter, in the same period, the start of building new houses fell to 33,000 (fair raymond (ed), 2013). Policies will not stop house price rises The studies undertaken by this paper have shown that the governments initiative of supporting home ownership and building new houses shall fail to create any real impact in 2016, if the property prices in uk keep climbing. Of the 88 respondents contacted by through this study concerning a general fall in prices in 2016, only 54 were of the view that current policies can create any impact or could succeed in increasing the demand. Even the sympathetic respondents were of the view that these measures shall only scratch the surface of the fundamental problem being faced by first-time buyers (karadimitrio, magalhaes verhage, 2013). Reasons To further give boost to the help to buy scheme, the chancellor has announced a lowered 3% stamp duty surcharge from april on all houses bought to let and also for second home buyers, while promising new affordable homes to people in london. However, economists are not expecting any change in the buyers trend from the government promises. One bright ray of hope comes from ryan bourne, public policy head at the institute of economic affairs. He expects the prices to stabilise in 2016 but was of the view that they were still higher and attributed this to the fact that it was because of a restricted supply position. This paper is also of the opinion that the damage could take a generation to rectify, as the new buildings required would take a long time for a stable market to emerge and make ownership affordable (sexton bogusz, 2013). Current impact Mr. Ethan ilzetzki, a respondent and lecturer at london school of economics, expressed view that the recent announcements by the government were a pittance on the supply side and shall prove to be highly inefficient subsidies for boosting the housing demand. He was of the opinion that the current policies of the government shall act as subsidies to the existing homeowners and will not benefit new buyers. This paper agrees with his contention expressed by (ashworth perera, 2015) that the promised 400,000 new affordable houses being started by the government and private sector are not sufficient to fulfil the demand of the growing populations needs and with no meaningful increase in supply, such measures shall translate into escalation of housing prices. This paper is of the opinion that as prices are expected to rise faster than incomes, none of the initiatives being promoted by the administration are expected to usher in the double-digit increase in housing fulfilment for new buyers in the coming years. Many respondents also opined that a small increase in interest rates could further dampen the buying spirit of new buyers. It is expected that only the top end london property market, where prices can be hit by a threat of brexit, a reduced interest from foreign investors and a higher level of stamp duty, is where it is expected to meet the demand (baum, 2009). Future growth Looking at the future growth, nick bosanquet, a professor at imperial, was of the opinion that there was the mooted risk of collapse in the buy to let segment although it was a small segment of investors. But he also warned of a bubble risk in one specific area and this concerned the flats in the london riverside area where a large number of new units are under construction and are expected to be off-loaded to the market in the next 18 months. In the opinion of this paper, (megarry et al, 2012), this may further reduce the demand by 20 to 30% because of reduced foreign demand and this paper suggests that the government should not take this as a housing crisis and undertake action which may lead to more market instability. Under the changed scenario which when looked upon in its totality found some sympathisers for the government such as mr. J. Chadha, professor of economics at university of kent, who said that the recent government policies was a step in the right direction but also opined that houses were still very expensive for the ordinary people living below the median incomes. Among the analysts, says (ashworth perera, 2015), criticism also stemmed from kate barker, a former member of monetary policy committee of bank of england, who chaired a 2004 report of the bank on housing supply, was of the opinion that it would be surprising if the current policies would be able to generate any new supply in the near future. However, she saw a brighter side of the policies as these could encourage future investment in construction skills and materials. Uk house prices set to rise 25% in next five years The royal institution of chartered surveyors (rics) has predicted that house prices in the uk shall rise by 25% over the coming five years and can become more unaffordable for new buyers and this can create acute shortage of houses for sale.Even this paper is of the view that as predicted by rics the supply of homes for sale had also fallen to the lowest level since the agency started keeping records beginning january 1978. The markets failed to capitalise on the post-general election supply increase so much so that the north-west and london saw the biggest drop in demand since april this year, as per (ashworth perera, 2015). Rics has also predicted that the average stock of houses has gone down by 12% since the beginning of 2015. On the other hand, inquiries from new buyers are increasing and are at their fastest rate in the current period. This has also been evident from the market reports which reported an increase in the house prices in may and this increase was at a faster rate as compared to the increase in april. Study by this paper suggests that prices are bound to rise again in the near future as the market is upbeat because of the majority conservative government at the helm of affairs is in a better position to govern effectively assert (mcfarlane, hopkins nield, 2012). Boom conditions are expected to return to the housing market and this sentiment is echoed by mr. Martin ellis, housing economist with halifax, who is apprehensive of an extremely tight housing supply in the coming months. According to ellis, this imbalance between demand and supply shall continue to push-up prices of houses in all segments and sectors in the coming months. On the basis of the studies conducted by this paper, it is expected that the average price of a house in the uk shall be around 195,000 in the near future (erp akkermans (ed), 2012). The theory of this paper is also supported by mr. Simon rubinsohn, who is the chief economist with rics. According to him there was some hope that with the removal of the political uncertainty in the country, the market will get the opportunity of more properties, although the initial indications do not indicate any such development at present. In the opinion of this paper, however, it is too early to make any judgement on the future trend of the market. The continuous rise in the market, across all segments, is therefore hardly surprising and the speculative nature of this trade shall keep the property market at a high level of unaffordability (kao, sung chen (ed), 2014). This paper also agrees with simon when he adds that there is feedback from members pointing to prices which could be higher by 25% over the coming five years. He was of the opinion that sentiments among the members suggested little or no confidence in the governments effective measures for providing a major boost to a new supply policy. Quoting another chartered surveyor from ashford, surrey, frost partnership, a member of rics, it has been predicted that listings were in short supply and this was pushing up housing prices to unrealistic levels (myers, 2012). Another rics member, curzon land, operating in central london and specialising in prime property investments, represented through its owner mr. Christopher green that the markets were very upbeat after the election result and that the market was filled with immense optimism because of the removal of the socialist for the next five years. Though, these indicate bad news for tenants. Market leaders are predicting a steep rise in r entals, which may be in the range of 3% in the coming year. The body was optimistic that this reflected a trend that demand for rental properties shall continue to increase. This paper also anticipates that rentals will increase across all sections of the uk in the near future, with expectations to be most high in the east midlands (baum baum, 2015). List of references Ashworth, a. And perera, s. 2015 cost studies of buildings, 6th ed. Routledge, oxon. Baum, a. 2009 commercial real estate investment. Taylor francis, london. Baum, a. And baum, prof a. 2015 real estate investment: a strategic approach, 3rd ed. Routledge, oxon. Erp, sjef van and akkermans, bram (ed). 2012 cases, materials and text on property law. Bloomsbury publishing, london. Fair, d.e. And raymond, r.j. (ed). 2013 the competitiveness of financial institutions and centres in europe. Springer science business media, dordrecht. Goodhart, c. And hofmann, b. 2007 house prices and the macroeconomy: implications for banking and price stability. Oup oxford, oxford. Kao, j.c.m., sung, w. And chen, r. (ed). 2014 green building, materials and civil engineering. Crc press, london. Karadimitrio, n., magalhaes, c. And verhage, r. 2013 planning, risk, and property development: urban regeneration in the england, france, and the netherlands. Routledge, oxon. Mcfarlane, ben, hopkins, nicholas and nield, sarah. 2012 land law: text, cases, and materials. Oxford university press, oxford. Megarry, robert, wade, william, harpum, charles, bridge, stuart and dixon, martin j. 2012 the law of real property, 8th ed. Sweet maxwell, new york. Myers, d. 2012 economics and property. Taylor francis, london. Sexton, roger and bogusz, barbara. 2013 complete land law: text, cases, and materials oxford university press, oxford.